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01/03/2012
Vinco's Smart PS™ - The Smart Choice Vinco's Smart PS™ finished dosage softgels feature an exclusive fluid dispersion phosphatidylserine material that has significantly enhanced stability for maximum brain benefits. Research in animals and humans has shown.....
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01/02/2012
Happy New Year! We, here at Vinco, would like to start off the New Year on the right foot by thanking you for your continued support.
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Omega 3 EPA/DHA 2200
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Item # VO3-2200
90 Softgels
Dietary Supplement
• Pharmaceutical Grade
• High in EPA and DHA
• Tested for more than 250 contaminates
• Very clean, pure, and molecullarly distilled
PROFESSIONAL FORMULATION
Vinco's Omega-3 EPA/DHA 2200
Vinco's Omega-3 DHA/EPA 2200 is a highly refined Omega-3 Fish Oil which has been shown to play a beneficial role in the immune system, cardiovascular health, brain/neurological, and pain management.
Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) Overview
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) is a member of the omega-3 family of fatty acids. Although EPA can be consumed directly by eating certain kinds of fish, it is also produced in the body from the conversion of alpha linolenic acid (ALA), also known as omega-3. The metabolic processes that convert omega-3 to EPA is accomplished by desaturase and elongase enzymes. Desaturase enzymes produce additional double bonds, while elongase enzymes add carbon atoms to make a longer fatty acid chains. The parent, or precursor, omega-3 molecule, alpha linolenic acid (ALA), is a long-chain fatty acid that contains 18 carbon atoms with three double bonds. Under the influence of the desaturase and elongase enzymes, omega-3 is converted to eicosapentaenoic acid, which is a fatty acid that is 20 carbons long and contains five double bonds. EPA is the precursor compound for the conversion to a group of chemicals called the series 3 prostaglandins (PGE3), which provide anti-inflammatory activity, enhance the immune system, thin the blood and lower blood pressure.
Absorption
EPA & DHA are absorbed from the intestinal tract, but since it is a fat, absorption is dependent on the amount of fat being consumed at the particular meal. One study reported that the absorption of EPA and DHA fish oils was increased three-fold when consumed with a high-fat meal.(1)
Symptoms and Causes for Deficiency of EPA & DHA
A deficiency of EPA & DHA have become increasingly common for the following reasons:
• Reduced consumptions of cold water fish, which is the primary dietary source of EPA & DHA.
• Low-fat diets reduce consumptions of EPA, DHA and other important fatty acids.
• Omega-3 (alpha linolenic acid), the dietary precursor to EPA & DHA, is typically removed from food to extend product shelf life.
In the last half century, there has been a significant increase in the use of processed oils from the omega-6 family such as corn, sunflower and safflower oils, which compete with and suppress the body's ability to convert omega-3 to EPA. Consumption of large quantities of trans fatty acids from foods containing partially hydrogenated fats and oils inhibits the enzyme delta-6-desaturase enzyme activity, which is responsible for the conversion of omega-3 to EPA and DHA and also omega-6 to its longer chain fattyacids.(2) The following nutrients are required for proper function of delta-6-desaturase enzyme activity, which converts omega-3 to EPA and DHA. They are niacin, pyridoxine, ascorbic acid, and zinc. Thus, a deficiency of any of these nutrients could impair the biosynthesis of EPA and DHA.(3)
Some of the major symptoms of a deficiency of EPA & DHa include the following: growth retardation in infants, weakness, impaired vision and learning ability, behavioral changes, dry skin, edema, increased inflammation, sticky platelets, elevated blood pressure, elevated triglycerides, altered metabolism, and weakened immune system.
Functions in the Body
Cellular Membranes - Increased amounts of EPA in cellular membranes will help reduce the amount of pre-inflammatory omega-6 fat known as arachidonic acid in cellular membranes.(4)
Leukotriene B5 - In leukocytes, through the lipoxygenase pathway, EPA metabolism produces leukotriene B5, which provides anti-inflammatory activity and reduces platelet adhesion.(5)
Lowering Triglycerides - EPA plays a major role in lowering triglycerides in the body.(6)
Prostacyclin 13 - In endothelial cells, through the cyclooxygenase pathway, EPA metabolism produces prostacyclin 13, which relaxes blood vessels and reduces platelet aggregation.(7)
Series 3 prostaglandins - EPA is the precursor to the series 3 prostaglandins (PGE3); which provide anti-inflammatory activity, enhance the immune system, and reduce platelet stickiness and blood pressure.(8)
Clinical Applications
Angina Pectoris - Studies indicate that a fish oil concentrate rich in EPA given to heart disease patients resulted in decreased platelet aggregation along with a significant reduction in angina attacks and the use of nitroglycerin medications.(9)
Asthma - Children who have a higher consumption of oily fish in their diets, which provide EPA and DHA, have a significantly reduced incidences of asthma. This is potentially due to the fatty acids reducing the production of pro-inflammatory leukotrienes.(10)
Bipolar Disorder - Evidence suggests that long-chain omega-3 fatty acids contained in fish oils (EPA & DHA) exhibit mood-stabilizing properties in patients with bipolar disorder, which is also known as manic depressive illness. EPA and DHA seem to inhibit neuronal signal transduction pathways in a manner similar to lithium carbonate and valproate, which are medications frequently used to treat this disorder. In a four-month, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, patients treated with the omega-3 fish oils exhibited a significantly longer period of remission, plus they scored better than the placebo group on virtually every outcome measure that was studied.(11)
Cancer - In an animal model, the addition of DHA/EPA to the diet resulted in a 35%-46% reduction in tumor growth. Also, in a cell culture studies, DHA resulted in a 46% decrease in cancer cell growth.(12)
Cardiac Arrhythmias - Studies reportedly reveal that EPA is able to prevent and correct potentially fatal cardiac arrhythmias and stabilize the electrophysiology of the heart.(13)
Cardiovascular Disease - A study assessed the effect of omega-3 fatty acids on systemic arterial compliance (SAC). SAC is a measure of arterial elasticity and may serve as a marker for cardiovascular disease and related events. In this individuals with dyslipidemias were randomly assigned to one of three groups; 3 g eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) per day (n=12), 3 g docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) per day (n=12), or placebo (n=14). Arterial functions, lipids and fatty acids were all measured prior to and following the treatment interventions. Compared to placebo, the omega-3 fatty acids significantly increased the SAC. EPA increased SAC 36% and DHA increased SAC 27%. In addition, the omega-3 fatty acids significantly lowered the total and VLDL triacylgylcerol levels.(14)
Crohn's Disease - Therapy with longer-chain omega-3 fatty acids, EPA and DHA, decrease the inflammatory activity in patients with Crohn's disease.(15,16)
Diabetes - EPA in combination with DHA improves insulin sensitivity in noninsulin dependent diabetes.(17) One study revealed that the membrane phospholipids of people with both type 1 and type 2 diabetes have significantly reduced levels of EPA.(18) EPA given to type 2 diabetes reportedly resulted in an increased production of prostacydin 13, suggesting that EPA may help prevent the complications associated with diabetes, such as microangiopathy and occlusive vascular disease, as well as lower triglycerides, blood viscosity, and decreased platelet reactivity.(19)
Eczema - After 12 weeks, patients consuming 1.8 grams of EPA daily
experienced reduced scaling, itching, .and overall improved skin lesions compared to placebo controls.(20)
Elevated Triglycerides - Studies indicate that EPA (not DHA) is the omega-3 fatty acid that is primarily responsible for lowering elevated levels in humans.(21)
Hypertension - EPA, in combination with DHA, provides a moderate decrease in both diastolic and systolic blood pressure in individuals with moderate hypertension.(22)
Lupus - Studies indicate that therapy with eicosapentaenoic acid, usually in combination with DHA, provides substantial benefit to patients with lupus. The results of one study reported that oral supplementation of EPA and DHA induced prolonged remission of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in 10 consecutive patients without any side effects.(23)
Psoriasis - In a cross-over trial, patients eating oily fish for a six-week period, which resulted in a rise in plasma eicosapentaenoic acid, exhibited modest clinical improvements in psoriasis compared to patients eating white fish, which did not alter EPA levels.(24) Modest improvement was also observed in a one-year trial where patients received only EPA, with a corresponding reduction in inflammatory leukotriene B4 (LTB4) and an increase in the formation of anti-inflammatory leukotriene B5(LTB5).(25)
Rheumatoid Arthritis - Patients consuming fish oils (EPA and DHA) reportedly have a substantial reduction in pro-inflammatory eicosanoids prostaglandin E(2) and leukotriene B(4), and up to a 90% reduction in pro-inflammatory cytokines.(26) In another trial, patients had significant reduction s in tender points and swollen joints with high dose consumption of fish oils (54 mg/kg EPA and 36 mg/kg DHA), providing better improvement than low dose consumption (27 mg/kg and 18 mg/kg). In this 24-week study, patients on low-dose fish oils obtained significant improvement in eight of 45 clinical measurements, while those on high-dose fish oils gained significant improvement in 21 of 45 categories.(27)
Schizophrenia - The results of two double-blind, placebo-controlled trials indicate that eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) provided substantial therapeutic benefits for patients with schizophrenia when taken in conjunction with anti-psychotic medications of as a sole therapy. The researchers concluded that EPA may represent a new treatment approach for schizophrenic.(28)
Ulcerative Colitis - Studies report that providing therapeutic doses of fish oils (EPA and DHA) to patients with ulcerative colitis results in suppression of immune reactivity and concurrent reduction in disease activity.(29,30)
Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) Overview
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is the longest and most unsaturated of the omega-3 fatty acids. DHA is one of the most abundant fatty acids in the brain. In the fetus and young infant, DHA is essential for proper growth and development of the brain, nervous system, and for the retina of the eyes. Breast-feeding is extremely important because an infant receives DHA from its mother's milk. Cow's milk and infant formulas do not contain DHA. In Europe, law mandates that infant formulas must contain DHA. Although DHA can be consumed directly by eating certain kinds of fish, it can also be produced in the body. This process first requires that conversion of alpha linolenic acid (ALA), which is also known as omega-3, to EPA. In the next step of the metabolic process, EPA is converted into DHA. The metabolic processes that convert omega-3 to EPA accomplish this with desaturase and elongase enzymes. Desaturase enzymes produce additional double bonds, while elongase enzymes add carbon atoms to make a longer fatty acid chain. The parent or precursor omega-3 molecule, alpha linolenic acid, is a long-chain fatty acid that contains 18 carbon atoms with three double bonds. Under the influence of the desaturase and elongase enzymes, ALA is converted to eicosapentaenoic acid, which is a fatty acid that is 20 carbons long and contains five double bonds. EPA is then converted into DHA, which is a fatty acid that is 22 carbons long and contains six double bonds. Studies using omega-3 (ALA) labeled with radioisotopes indicate that many Americans, who normally ingest large quantities of omega-6 oils, probably convert less than 2% of their dietary alpha linolenic acid (ALA) into docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).(31) Although fish are the best dietary source of DHA, monitoring by the Environmental Protection Agency reveals that commercially available fish may have unacceptably high levels of mercury.(32) Because this problem is of such concern, the EPA warns that pregnant or nursing women and small children should limit their intake of fish.(33) The above issues underscore the importance of taking DHA as a nutritional supplement. Individuals taking DHA supplementation must be warned about the importance of also taking adequate levels of antioxidants.
Clinical Applications
ADHD - Researchers report that children with ADHD have low plasma levels of DHA and exhibit symptoms indicative of essential fatty acid deficiency.(34) However, the results of a short 4-month trial reported that children who received 345 mg/day of DHA did not exhibit a decrease in the symptoms of ADHD.(35)
Bipolar Disorder - Evidence suggests that long-chain omega-3 fatty acids contained in fish oils (EPA and DHA) exhibit mood-stabilizing properties in patients with bipolar disorder, which is also known as manic depressive illness. EPA and DHA seem to inhibit neuronal signal transduction pathways in a manner similar to lithium carbonate and valproate, which are medications frequently used to treat this disorder. In a four-month, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, patients treated with the omega-3 fish oils exhibited a significantly longer period of remission, plus they scored better than the placebo group on virtually every outcome measure that was studied.(36)
Breast Cancer - There is an inverse relationship between the incidence of breast cancer and fish consumption, which suggests a role for DHA and EPA in the prevention of breast cancer. This may be due to the fact that the omega-3 fats competitively inhibit omega-6 fats, which are considered to promote breast cancer tumorigenesis and tumor cell proliferation.(37)
Breast Feeding (Lactation) - DHA is essential for the development of the brain and eyes in infants. Consequently, nursing mothers should be educated about the importance of obtaining optimal intakes of DHA. Infants receiving adequate DHA, either from supplementation or from well nourished mothers, exhibit increased cognitive function (38) and visual acuity (39) compared to controls.
Cancer - In an animal model, the addition of DHA/EPA to the diet resulted in a 35% - 46% reduction in tumor growth. Also, in cell culture studies, DHA resulted in a 46% decrease in cancer cell growth.(40)
Chemotherapy - The results of animal studies suggest that supplementation with DHA can make several types of chemotherapy both more effective and less toxic. In one study, mitomycin C was 10 times more effective in animals supplemented with DHA-containing menhaden oil.(41) In another study, after 2 months of treatment with cydophosphamide, 50% of the animals on a 5% corn oil diet had died whereas none of the animals receiving the DHA/menhaden oil died.(42)
Depression - Studies indicate that people with major depression may have abnormal metabolism of the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Thus, fatty acid analysis and appropriate supplementation may be an important aspect of treatment for patients suffering from major depression.(43)
Dysmenorrhea - Providing DHA along with EPA for two months to adolescents with dysmenorrhea resulted in a marked reduction in menstrual symptoms.(44)
Elevated Triglycerides - Patients who were given DHA (1.25 or 2.5 mg/day) for six weeks experienced approximately a 20% reduction in serum triglycerides.(45)
Heart Disease - Studies indicate that there is an inverse relationship between coronary heart disease risk and levels of docosahexaenoic acid.(46) A study assessed the effect of omega-3 fatty acids on systemic arterial compliance (SAC). SAC is a measure of arterial elasticity and may serve as a marker for cardiovascular disease and related events. In this placebo controlled, randomized, double-blind trial, of three groups: 3 g eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) per day (n=12), 3 g docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) per day (n=12), or placebo (n=14), arterial functions, lipids and fatty acids were all measured prior to and following the treatment interventions. Compared to placebo the omega-3 fatty acids significantly increased the SAC. EPA increased SAC 36% and DHA increased SAC 27%. In addition, the omega-3 fatty acids significantly lowered the total and VLDL triacylgylcerol levels.(47)
Infant Formulas - Compared to controls, at 18 months of age, infants receiving supplemental DHA in their infant formulas scored significantly higher in mental development, as gauged by memory, problem solving, discrimination, and other related skills, and also showed "significant developmental age advantage" in motor and cognitive skills.(49)
Premature Infants - It has been reported that DHA is important for early development of the brain, nervous system, and retina of the eyes. Preterm infants need to be supplemented with DHA since these infants are often incubated and not breast-fed.(49) In one study, pre-term infants supplemented with DHA developed higher visual acuity.(50)
Schizophrenia - Studies indicate that patients with schizophrenia have lower levels of the long-chain omega-3 fatty acids. Supplementation led to a significant improvement in 20 schizophrenic symptoms.(51,52)
Sickle Cell Disease - A group of patients suffering from sickle cell disease were administered menhaden fish oil (0.25 g/kg/d), which contained 12% EPA and 18% DHA. This treatment resulted in a substantial reduction of pain episodes requiring hospitalization from 7.8 hospitalizations the previous year down to 3.8 events/year. The authors suggest that the reduction in pain events requiring hospitalization were related to omega-3 fatty acid-dependent inhibition of thrombosis.(53)
X-linked retinitis pigmentosa - It has been discovered that individuals with this condition have a metabolic defect in the activity of their delta-5 desaturase enzyme activity, which inhibits their ability to biosynthesize DHA. Whereas supplementation may be appropriate, a leading researcher stressed that they would like to wait until the results from the ongoing double-blind, placebo-controlled trial are known, which is expected to be in early 2002.(54)
Zellweger Syndrome - Individuals with this genetic peroxisomal disorder have low levels of DHA. Patients treated with DHA exhibit improved vision and muscle as well as MRI-documented improvements in myelination. Treatment has been most successful when initiated before 6 months of age.(55)
Toxicities and General Warnings
Individuals who ingest supplemental EPA & DHA are advised to take additional antioxidants, especially vitamin E, to protect against free radical oxidation in the body.(56) Some people who take supplemental EPA & DHA in the form of fish oil complain of gastrointestinal burping and belching, which causes a "fishy" odor.
These statements have not been evaluated by the FDA. This product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease.
References:
1. Lawson LD, et al. Absorption of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid from fish oil triacylglycerols or fish oil ethyl esters co-ingested with a high-fat meal. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. Oct 1988; 156(2):960-3.
2. Booyens J, et al. The role of unnatural dietary trans and cis unsaturated fatty acids in the epidemiology of coronary artery disease. Med Hypotheses. Mar 1988;25(3):145-82.
3. Horrobin DF. Loss of delta-6-desaturase activity as a key factor in aging. Med Hypotheses. Sep 1981;7(9):1221-20.
4. Heller A,Koch T, Schmeck J, van Ackern K. Lipid mediators in inflammatory disorders. Drugs. Apr 1998;55(4):487-96.
5. Lkehata A, et al. Effect of intravenously infused eicosapentaenoic acid on the leukotriene generation in patients with active Crohn's disease. Am J Clin Nutr. Nov 1992;56(1):36-44.
6. Rambjor GS, et al. Eicosapentaenoic acid is primarily responsible for hypotriglyceridemic effect of fish oil in humans. Lipids. Mar 1996;31 Suppl:S45-9.
7. Kinsella JE, Lokesh B, Stone RA. Dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and amelioration of cardiovascular disease: possible mechanisms. Am J Clin Nutr. Jul 1990;52(1):3-10.
8. Calder PC. Immunoregulatory and anti-inflammatory effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Braz J Med Biol Res. Apr 1998;31(4):467-90.
9. Saynor R, et al. The long-term effect of dietary supplementation with fish lipid concentrate on serum lipids, bleeding time, platelets and angina. Atherosclerosis. Jan 1984;50(1):3-10.
10. Hodge L, et al. Consumption of Oily Fish and Childhood Asthma Risk. MJA. Feb 1996;164:137-140.
11. Stoll AL, et al. Omega 3 fatty acids in bipolar disorder; A preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Archives of General Psychiatry. May 1999:66:407-412.
12. Colquhoun A, Ramos KL, Schumacher RI. Eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid effects on tumor mitochondrial metabolism, acyi CoA metabolism and cell proliferation. Cell Biochem Funct. Jun 2001;19(2):97-105.
13. Kang JX, Leaf A. Prevention of fatal cardiac arrhythmias by polyunsaturated fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr. Jan 2000;71(1 Suppl):202S-7S.
14. Nestel P, Shige H, Pomeroy S, Cehun M, Abbey M, Raederstorff D. The n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid increase systemic arterial compliance in humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Aug 2002;76(2):326-330.
15. Ikehata A, et al. Effect of intravenously infused eicosapentaenoic acid on the leukotriene generation in patients with active Crohn's disease. Am J Clin Nutr. Nov 1992;56(5):938-42.
16. Belluzzi A, et al. Effects of new fish oil derivative on fatty acid phosphoiipid-membrane pattern in a group of Crohn's disease patients. Dig Dis Sci. Dec 1994;39(12):2589-94.
17. Popp-Snijders C, et al. Dietary supplementation of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids improves insulin sensitivity in non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Diabetes Res. Mar 1987;4(3):141-7.
18. Horrobin D. Essential Fatty Acids in the Management of Impaired Nerve Function in Diabetes. Diabetes. 1997;46(Suppl.2);S90-S93.
19. Nishikawa M, et al. Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) of prostacyclin production in diabetics: Gc/Ms analysis of PG12 and PG13 levels. Meth. Find. Exp. Clin. Pharmnacol. 1997;19(6):429-433.
20. Bjorneboe A, et al. Effect of dietary supplementation with eicosapentaenoic acid in the treatment of atopic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol. 1987;177(4):463-69.
21. Rambjor GS, et al. Eicosapentaenoic acid is primarily responsible for the hypotrigiyceridemic effect of fish oil in humans. Lipids. Mar 1996;31 Suppl:S45-9.
22. Prisco D, et al. Effect of medium-term supplementation with a moderate dose of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood pressure in mild hypertensive patients. Thromb Res. Aug 1998;91(3):105-12.
23. Das UN. Beneficial effect of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in the management of systemic lupus erythematosus and its relationship of the cytokine network. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. Sep 1994;51(3):207-13.
24. Collier PM, et al. Effect of regular consumption of oily fish compared with white fish on chronic plaque psoriasis. Eur J Clin Nutr. Apr 1993;47(4):251-4.
25. Kojima T, et al. Long-term administration of highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid provides improvement of psoriasis. Dermatologica. 1991;182(4):225-30.
26. James MJ, et al. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory mediator production. Am J Clin Nutr. Jan 2000;71(Suppl):343S-8S.
27. Kremer JM, et al. Dietary fish oil and olive oil supplementation in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Clinical and immunologic effects. Arthritis Rheum. Jun 1990;33(6):810-20.
28. Peet M, Laugharne JD, Mellor J, Ramchand CN. Essential fatty acid deficiency in erythrocyte membranes from chronic schizophrenic patients, and the clinical effects of dietary supplementation. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. Aug 1996;55(1-2):71-5.
29. Almallah YZ, et al. Distal proctocolitis and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs): the mucosal effect in situ. J Clin Immunol. Jan 2000;20(1):68-76.
30. Grimminger F, et al. Influence of intravenous n-3 lipid supplementation on fatty acid profiles and lipid mediator generation in a patient with severe ulcerative colitis. Eur J Clin Invest.
Nov 1993;23(11):706-15.
31. Gerster H. Can adults adequately convert alpha-linolenic acid (18:3n-3) to eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3)? Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 1998;68(3):159-73.
32. EPA Fact Sheet. Mercury Update: Impact on Fish Advisories, EPA-823-F-01-011. Jun 2001.
33. EPA-Office of Water: Consumption Advisories. Available at:http://www.epa.gov/ost/fishadvice/advice.html. Accessed Jul 2001.
34. Burgess JR, et al. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Clin Nutr. Jan 2000;71(1 Suppl):327S-30S.
35. Voigt RG, LlorenteAM, Jensen CL, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Pediatr. Aug 2001;139(2):189-96.
36. Stoll AL, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids in bipolar disorder; A preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Archives of General Psychiatry. May 1999:66:407-412.
37. Noguchi M. The Role of Fatty Acids and Eicosanoid Synthesis Inhibitors in Breast Cancer. Oncology. 1995:52:265-271.
38. Willatts P, Forsyth JS, DiModugno MK, et al. Effect of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in infant formula on problem solving at 10 months of age. Lancet. Aug 1998;352(9129):688-91.
39. Jorgensen MH, Hernell O, Hughes E, Michaelsen KF. Is there a relation between docosahexaenoic acid concentration in mothers' milk and visual development in term infants? J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. Mar 2001;32(3):293-6.
40. Colquhoun A, Ramos KL, Schumacher RI. Eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid effects on tumor mitochondrial metabolism, acyi CoA metabolism and cell proliferation. Cell Biochem Funct. Jun 2001;19(2):97-105.
41. Shao Y, Pardini L, Pardini RS. Dietary menhaden oil enhances mitomycin C anti-tumor activity toward human mammary carcinoma MX-1. Lipids. Nov 1995;30(11):1035-45.
42. Shao Y, Pardini L, Pardini RS. Intervention oftransplantable human mammary carcinoma MX-1 chemotherapy with dietary menhaden oil in athymic mice: increased therapeutic effects and decreased toxicity of cyclophosphamide. Nutr Cancer. 1997:28(1):63-73.
43. Edwards R, Peet M, Shay J. Depletion of docosahexaenoic acid in red blood cell membranes of depressive patients. Biochem SocTrans. May 1998;26(2):S142.
44. Harel Z, et al. Supplementation With Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in the Management of Dysmenorrhea in Adolescents. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. Apr 1996;174(4):1335-8.
45. Davidson M, et al. Effects of docosahexaenoic acid on serum lipoproteins in patients with combined hyperlipidaemia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. JAM Coil Nutri. 1997:16:236-243.
46. Simon J, et al. Serum Fatty Acids and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1995;142(5):469-476.
47. Nestel P, Shige H, Pomeroy S, Cehun M, Abbey M, Raederstorff D. The n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid increase systemic arterial compliance in humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Aug 2002;76(2):326-330.
48. Birch EE, et al. A randomized controlled trial of early dietary supply of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and mental development in term infants. Dev Med Child Neur. 2000;(42):174-181.
49. Uauy R, Mena P. Requirements for long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the preterm infant. Curr Opin Pediatr. APR 1999;11(2):115-20.
50. Workman S, et al. A Randomized Trial of Visual Attention of Preterm Infants Fed Docosahexaenoic Acid Until Nine Months. Lipids. 1996:31(1):91-97.
51. Laugharne J, et al. Fatty Acids and Schizophrenia. Lipids. 1996(Suppl);31-S-163 - S-165.
52. Peet M, Laugharne JD, Mellor J, Ramchand CN. Essential fatty acid deficiency in erythrocyte membranes from chronic schizophrenic patients, and the clinical effects of dietary supplementation.
Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. Aug 1996;55(1-2):71-5.
53. Tomer A, Kasey S, Connor WE, et al. Reduction of pain episodes and prothrombotic activity in sickle cell disease by dietary n-3 fatty acids. Thomb Haemost. Jun 2001;85(6):966-74.
54. Hoffman DR, DeMar JC, Heird WC, et al. Impaired synthesis of DHA in patients with X-linked retinitis pigmentosa. J Lipid Res. Sep 2001;42(9):1395-401.
55. Martinez M. Restoring the DHA levels in the brains of Zellweger patients. J Mol Neurosci. Apr 2001;16(2-3):309-16.
56. Moison RM, et al. Dietary eicosapentaenoic acid prevents systemic immuno-suppression in mice induced by UVB radiation. Radiat Res. Jul 2001;156(1):36-44.
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